Van Til, as do other contemporary scholars, approaches philanthropy as a social exchange. "Philanthropy does involve a complex exchange of money, power, values, and expectations between the donor and the donee". Gifts, he said, may "be traded for some mix of power, influence, and the commitment of values". Educated professional resume writer: we hire good writers! Get your resume written by professional resume writers! We are online 24/7! The French sociologist Marcel Mauss was the first to challenge the notion that giving to others is a pure altruistic act. His ground-breaking book approached gifts as a means of receiving something in return. In subsequent years, other sociologists conceptualized the theory of social exchange, which explains human interaction on the basis of reward expectations. Alvin Gouldner, whose work is discussed shortly, suggested that many acts labeled altruistic are, in fact, part of an exchange framework. Richard Titmus moved the concept of social exchange beyond individuals and advanced the idea of a society in which citizens feel responsibility toward one another, as well as themselves. Addressing the debate between altruism and self-interest, it was admitted, "Altruism can be a powerful force in human affairs, but it is a less reliable force than egoism most of the time". They concluded, "We assume that human beings have a legitimate self-interest and a concern for others at the same time. Fund raising thus uses self-interest to help people go beyond self-interest".